Por Rosie Inguanzo
Rafa, tu comentario de ayer me recuerda ese momento increíble (más que las aventuras de Marco Polo que le preceden). Y es que el descubrimiento de América vino acompañado por la narración de los hechos. La "invención de América" surge a partir del conjunto de cartas de relación (hace 514 años Colón llegó por las Bahamas), crónicas, diarios y relatos que dejaron constancia de la empresa, sentando las bases para el discurso mítico-poético-histórico del cual deriva toda la literatura hispanoamericana posterior. En Colón vemos al descubridor, en Bernal Díaz del Castillo la visión del soldado raso, en Las Casas el discurso en defensa de los indios, y en Naufragios de Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, al hombre europeo y al americano enfrentados por primera vez cara a cara. Textos donde la ficción y realidad se mezclan con un acervo de leyendas medievales, libros de caballerías, la Biblia y toda la imaginería medieval europea. Son Álvar y Las Casas los que traen el llamado "discurso del fracaso", en contrapartida con la visión mitificadota y providencialista de Colón (la imagen del indio como "el buen salvaje" y de América como el "paraíso terrenal"). Naufragios narra el desastre de la expedición de Pánfilo de Narváez y los casi ocho años que vagaron por tierras americanas. El arduo deambular de seiscientos náufragos se inicia en tierras de la Florida, hoy Tampa, culminado en Nuevo México con cuatro sobrevivientes. Fascina descubrir cómo Álvar, expuesto a las inclemencias del nuevo mundo, fue capturado por un chamán que lo esclaviza tratándolo como una bestia. Aún aprende de éste rituales y curas mágicas que le permitirán subsistir en medio de lo inusitado y lo desconocido, convirtiéndose en sanador, ganando renombre entre la población nativa. A partir de ahí, los cronistas de América trazarán la pauta a toda la literatura latinoamericana posterior, fijando también los futuros clichés, donde el tema recurrente de la búsqueda y el viaje serán constantes semánticas. La historia de América es palpable en unos escritos donde ficción y realidad alternan para descubrinos un mundo desbordado.
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The Black Legend (in Spanish, La leyenda negra) is the disparaging depiction of Spain and Spaniards as bloodthirsty and cruel, intolerant, greedy and fanatical. The Black Legend is evident in works by early Protestant historians describing the period of dominant Spanish imperialism, many also see influences of the black legend, the Inquisition myth, in the villains, and storylines of modern fiction and film. The term was coined by Julián Juderías in his 1914 book La leyenda negra y la verdad histórica (The Black Legend and Historical Truth).
The nature of Spain and its international efforts has also been a cause of contention amongst Spaniards themselves, from Gongora's Soledades until the Generation of '98. Traditionally, the Black Legend has been used by the left and the nationalists of non-Castilian regions as a political weapon against the central government or Spanish nationalism, which the conservative parties have countered with the White Legend. To avoid causing offense, the Seville Expo '92 (during a PSOE Government) celebrated the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America, as the beginning of the Age of Discovery, and not of colonization or conquest.
About the painting;
Artist- Salvador Dali
The Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus
(1958-59)
Oil on canvas
161 1/2 x 122 1/8 inches
Three major influences (other than Gala, who was ALWAYS Dali's chief muse) inspired Dali to create this Masterwork, which is more than 14 feet tall. The first of these was the appraching 300th anniversary of the death of Velazques, who was very important to Dali. The second was that there was considerable academic debate at the time regarding the true nationality of Columbus. Some were asserting that Columbus had been Catalonian rather than Italian, and Dali seized upon this opportunity to further glorify his wondrous Catalonia. Finally, the gallery which commissioned Dali to paint this work, the Huntington Hartford Gallery, was situated on Columbus Circle in New York City. The combination of these 3 things was enough to inspire Dali to wondrous heights of creativity.
Also, let us recall that during the expansion of the Spanish throughout the "New World", the English, French, Dutch and others, tried to influence the Vatican to "slow down" the Spanish Conquest" via "the Black legend". It is to note, that the British, under Royal orders, were the first to plan and carry out "biological warfare" in order to wipe out indian villages. Utilizing a planned system of "trading" blankets, with smallpox scabs on them, with the innocent villages, resulting in killing massive amounts of inhabitants via smallpox with the virulent objects. The Spanish did spread diseases also, but NOT purposeful, such as the swine flu, smallpox etc. Also to note is the valiant and somewhat unethical voyage in 1803, by King Charles IV, known as the "Royal Philanthropic Vaccine Expedition. This was the first large scale international public health program. Since the vaccine had just been discovered, the immunization of all the colonies was carried throughout the colonies, from the Phillipines to the Americas. The Kings physician Dr. Francisco Javier Balmis developed a method to keep the smallpox alive during the long voyages by use of transfering the virus, using orphans as live subjects from Spain (before refrigeration or other methods to keep the smallpox active, human transference was the only way), some of the children died from the smallpox on route. The voyage lasted fron 1803-1806, and it's immunilogical, life saving methods reached as far as China and throughout the Americas. In the words of Mexican physician Ignacio Chavez, it was " one of the cleanest, most humane, and most authentically civilized pages ever written in history". Although, some lives were sacrificed, by circum-navigating the earth and vaccinating all of Spain's colonies, millions of lives were saved, and yet, no one speaks of this fantastic and logistically and scientific achievement in history or science books today!
Qué bien, Rosie, qué bien! Ojeada lectiva que metodiza el origen del exuberante discurso continental. Ustedes las mujeres se hacen fronda cuando crecen en los textos.
Disculpa RI, pero el informar es un habito malo mio.
El primer "Socio-Antropologo de las Americas"...
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (1507-1559)
Cabeza de Vaca, el "conquistador" de América, era una especie de "Economista del Estado" o "Interventor de Hacienda" de la época. En su libro "Naufragios" presta una atención especial a la forma de vida y sistema económico de las tribus de indios con las que convivió durante años y es por tanto una sorprendente y vívida descripción de la economía de grupos de cazadores-recolectores paleolíticos.El con dos mas sobrevivientes son acreditado con la leyenda "El Dorado", que sirvio para muchos, la expansion de España en el Nuevo Mundo.
Nacido en Jerez, de familia noble, sus antepasados habían participado en la Reconquista y en la conquista de las Islas Canarias. En 1527, teniendo veinte de edad, es nombrado tesorero y alguacil mayor en la expedición que, encabezada por Pánfilo de Narváez, tenía como objetivo la exploración y conquista de la Florida. La aventura resultó un fracaso. De los varios cientos de españoles que la componían solo sobrevivieron cinco: cuatro de ellos compusieron la banda que dirigió Cabeza de Vaca hasta su retorno a España y un quinto fue encontrado años más tarde por la expedición de Hernando de Soto .
Cabeza de Vaca sobrevivió ocho años conviviendo con los indios. Primero, como esclavo; después como mercader, traficando con conchas de moluscos que llevaba al interior y pigmentos que llevaba a la costa; finalmente como curandero, deambulando de pueblo en pueblo hasta retornar a Nueva España.
A su vuelta a España, tras escribir el informe de su viaje, se le nombró gobernador de la provincia del Río de la Plata. En su recorrido por aquellas tierras, en 1540, descubre las cataratas de Iguazú. Ejerce su gobierno desde Asunción, en la actual Paraguay, ya que Buenos Aires había tenido que ser abandonada por los españoles por los ataques de los aborígenes. En su gobierno trata de impedir los abusos sobre los indios, lucha contra la esclavitud y trata de poner límites a los harenes de mujeres indígenas que poseían los colonos y franciscanos españoles. Finalmente una rebelión de sus súbditos en 1544 lo toma preso y, tras mantenerlo un año encarcelado, lo devuelven a España.
En la corte es juzgado y condenado al destierro en Orán. Ocho años después recibe el perdón real y es nombrado juez en Sevilla, donde muere al poco de llegar.
(sorry for the erratum on date 1927, on deleted post, should be 1527, now rectified.)
Quien se acuerda de Las Cronicas de Bernal publicadas en la Habana a finales de los 60? Yo me las empolle... era la moda. Fue mi primer encuentro con lo que mas tarde conocimos como "la literatura de lass cronicas".
AT,
Hablas de Bernal Diaz Del Castillo ... Cuales cronicas fueron publicadas en el siglo 16?
El que fue conquistador, y formo parte de la expedicion de Hernan Cortes, entre otros. Bernal, en sus cronicas escribe sobre la batalla contra el imperio de los Aztecas y la victoria de Tenochitlan y muchos otros datos? Es del que mencionas?
Si Mano. El mismo que viste y calza.
RI,
Tu escrito me recuerda al poema de Edgar Allen Poe. Como la leyenda de "El Dorado", sale de los escritos de Cabeza de Vaca (Un nombre dado por el Rey de España a su ancestro, por utilizar una cabeza de vaca sobre una lanza, al infiltrar el territorio de los moros, usando la "cabeza de vaca" como el signo, para avanzar el ataque español, y resultando en victoria para el Reino).
Aqui le posteo el poema de Poe;
"Eldorado"
Gaily bedight,
A gallant knight,
In sunshine and in shadow,
Had journeyed long,
Singing a song,
In search of Eldorado.
But he grew old-
This knight so bold-
And o'er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.
And, as his strength
Failed him at length,
He met a pilgrim shadow-
"Shadow," said he,
"Where can it be-
This land of Eldorado?"
"Over the Mountains
Of the Moon,
Down the Valley of the Shadow,
Ride, boldly ride,"
The shade replied-
"If you seek for Eldorado!"
Bien entre el mito y la realidad anda hoy la tarde. No he utilizado mis cuernos para descalabrar el fin de semana y la razón ha sido que desconozco a quien puedo clavar mi ósea ornamenta. Y las malas mentes que se ausenten porque la pregunta es la siguiente:
¿Tumiami... dónde vamos este fin de semana, qué vemos, con quién, tomamos la última copa, y en qué bar nos disponemos a hablar del dolor y lo beneplácito de los días pasados?.
Como pueden ver, esta no es la crónica de Bernal ni de Bartolomé de las Casas, sino la de un pobre solitario que aún está trabajando en su oficina en Hialeah.
Decisión: Voy a ver "The Departed" de Martin Scorsese en Cocowalk a las 8.30h. Si hay una propuesta mejor que lance alguien la primera piedra.
(Nota: Noto a faltar aquellas recomendaciones tan bien hechas de Tumiami para el fin de semana)
Rosy. Esta mezcla de realidad y fantasía que heredaron de los colonizadores, es el perfume más particular que tienen ustedes los latinoamericanos. Sin ironías, ni vino en mi mano derecha lo proclamo a viva voz.
Amílcar
Mano es fascinante porque Bernal comunica su experiencia en el nuevo mundo asi "Desde mi ventana veo..." otorgando una veracidad a sus escritos. Es inapreciable su aporte: la huella de la Malinche, los detalles y ultimos minutos de Moctezuma...Pero si, todos ellos incurren en imprecisiones y exageraciones. Tenian que justificar la empresa ante los reyes que proveian el $, o ganarse encomiendas o querian, se morian regresar a las atractivas tierras americanas (como es el caso de Cabeza de Vaca).
Que me dicen el Inca Garcilazo? Ese si encarna el hibrido primogenio, hijo de una princesa inca y un noble espanyol, se debatia. Ademas sus escritos si tienen valor literario, digamos, estilo. Carinyos, RI
Cuando lei Naufragios, muy jovencito, en una edicion cubana paperback de excelente diseno, me traumatice. El relato de Cabeza de Vaca me borro de un tortazo todo el Salgari que ya tenia en mi marrana chola. Casi me tumba todo el London y me tambaleo severamente a Kipling. Gracias a la inconstancia del Instituto del Libro en su politica editorial y a la inscontancia en mi politica de coger guaguas e ir hasta la biblioteca, nunca he leido Comentarios. Un libro sin tiempo, inolvidable.
This is a long article, yet interesting for those that like history, and not legends!
When armies get in desperate situations, the usual civilized rules of warfare are often thrown out the window. In the 1520s, Italian politician and author Niccolo Machiavelli wrote that when speaking of the safety of one's country, there must be no consideration of just or unjust, merciful or cruel, or praiseworthy or disgraceful; instead, setting aside every scruple, one must follow to the utmost any plan that will save her life and keep her liberty.
During Chief Pontiac's uprising in 1763, the Indians besieged Fort Pitt and burned nearby houses, forcing the inhabitants to take refuge in the well-protected fort. The British officer in charge of the fort, Captain Simeon Ecuyer, reported to Colonel Henry Bouquet in Philadelphia that smallpox had already broken out and that he feared the crowded conditions would result in the spread of the virus. On 24 June 1763, William Trent, a local trader, recorded in his journal that two Indian chiefs visited the fort and urged the British to abandon the fight, but the British refused. Instead, when the chiefs departed, they were given blankets and a handkerchief out of the smallpox hospital.
It is not known who conceived the plan, but there is no doubt that it met with the approval of the British military and may have been common practice. After the incident at Fort Pitt, Sir Jeffrey Amherst, commander of British forces in North America, wrote that the event was contrived to send the virus among the Indians. Sir Jeffrey ordered the extirpation of the Indians (without taking prisoners). About a week later, he wrote to Colonel Bouquet and recommended the additional inoculation of Indians with smallpox-infected blankets, in addition to every other method used to extirpate the "execrable race."
Though a connection cannot be proven, a smallpox epidemic erupted in the Ohio Valley that may have been the result of distributing infected articles at Fort Pitt. Whatever its origin, the outbreak devastated the Indians. Although modern readers may find such tactics atrocious and barbaric, these methods were acceptable during this time period. And all-out war was not foreign to the Indians. During Pontiac's rebellion, Indian warriors killed about 2,000 civilian settlers and 400 soldiers in an attempt to extirpate the enemy.
The Fort Pitt incident is the best-documented case of deliberately spreading smallpox among unsuspecting populations, but it was likely not the first time such a stratagem was employed by military forces. It appears that both Captain Ecuyer and Sir Jeffrey proposed the same idea independently at about the same time, suggesting that the practice was not unusual. The spread of sickness and disease among enemy forces has a long history. The ancient Assyrians and Greeks poisoned enemy water supplies; the Greeks used the herb hellebore to cause violent diarrhea. In 1340, attackers used a catapult to throw dead animals over the walls of the castle of Thun L 'Eveque in Hainault (now northern France), causing such a foul, unendurable odor that the defenders negotiated a truce.
In 1623, Dr. John Pott, a physician at Jamestown, Virginia, was said to have poisoned Indians in retaliation for a Powhatan uprising in which 350 English died. On 22 May 1623, Captain William Tucker and 12 other men went to the Potomac River to secure the release of English prisoners held by Indians. To conclude the peace treaty, the English invited the chief and his men to drink a sack prepared for the occasion. But the Indians demanded that the English interpreter take the first drink, which he did from a different container. Afterward, a group of Indians, including two chiefs, were walking with the interpreter when the interpreter suddenly dropped to the ground while the English soldiers discharged a volley of shots into his Indian companions. The English estimated that about 200 Indians died of poison and 50 from gunshot wounds; however, Chief Opechancanough, the mastermind of the uprising, was not found among the dead. Some Englishmen expressed reservations about using such tactics, even against the Indians, and Dr. Pott was later criticized for his actions.
By the 17th century, European military leaders were becoming conscious of ethics in warfare and rules for carrying out civilized war slowly developed. In 1625, a Dutch legal scholar, Hugo Grotius, published his codification of accepted rules of peace and war. Grotius departed from the classical view of war and did not regard the entire population of the antagonist state as the enemy. Other writers also made attempts to better define the term enemy, believing that a distinction between military forces and civilians needed to be established.
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